Reasonable or radical? First-order, second-order, and meta-stereotypes of different climate activists among the German public and climate activists

Abstract

Climate activists engaging in public protest can play a vital role in accelerating the socio-ecological trans formation. How activists are viewed likely influences the success of their actions. Across two German samples, we investigated how (a) the public viewed climate activists (first-order stereotypes), (b) how the public thought the public viewed climate activists (second-order stereotypes), and (c) how climate activists thought the public viewed them (meta-stereotypes). Unconventional climate activists (street-gluers) were viewed much more negatively than conventional climate activists (street-marchers) by a representative sample of the German public (N = 1,002). The public overestimated minority stereotypes, and underestimated majority stereo types—indicating pluralistic ignorance. Regarding street-marchers, the public’s second-order stereotypes were overly negative, meaning the public thought that more members of the public viewed street-marchers negatively than was actually the case. By contrast, the public’s second-order stereotypes of street-gluers were overly pos itive. More negative first- and second-order stereotypes among the public were associated with lower activist support; more positive first- and second-order stereotypes were positively associated with more activist support. In a convenience sample of German climate activists (N = 267), street-marchers thought they were viewed more negatively by the public than they actually were, whereas street-gluers thought they were viewed more pos itively—the first finding being in line and the second at odds with intergroup negativity bias. Both activist groups also underestimated majority stereotypes and overestimated minority stereotypes about themselves (pluralistic ignorance). The results support both theoretical accounts of pluralistic ignorance and intergroup negativity bias—although they support pluralistic ignorance more substantively—suggesting the biases are not mutually exclusive. These insights are important because the biased social reality experienced by the public and climate activists can have profound influences on judgments and decision-making around climate change. © 2025 The Authors.