Predictors of urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolite concentrations in German children and adolescents using data from the German Environmental Survey 2014 – 2017 (GerES V)

Abstract

Children and adolescents are highly exposed to harmful polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that exist as mixtures of hundreds of compounds in air, soil, water, dust and food. This study investigated 21 personal, lifestyle and environmental predictors of urinary PAH metabolites from four PAHs (naphthalene, fluorene, phenanthrene and pyrene), using a dataset of 516 3–17-year-olds from 167 locations in Germany. Spearman correlation analysis showed weak to moderate associations (ρ = 0.2–0.6) between PAH metabolite concentrations. Regression analysis revealed high nicotine exposure, young age, and residence in large cities to be the most important predictors of multiple PAH burden, with estimated changes in metabolite concentrations of 124–1080%, 47–155%, and 22–57% respectively. Other notable predictors included: BMI, socioeconomic status, sex, consumption of chocolate, smoked and barbecued foods, chewing on plastic objects, road traffic, and heating type. Analysis of the ratios of 1-hydroxynaphthalene to 2-hydroxynaphthalene for subgroups with high cotinine level (3-fold increase) or moderate to high chocolate consumption (1.7–3.4-fold increase) was suggestive of exposure to carbaryl, a pesticide not permitted for use in the EU since 2007. Differences in the burden of PAH metabolites between East and West Germany was investigated using subgroup analysis. Consuming smoked food was both more prevalent (p = 0.009) and likely to contribute to a greater 1-hydroxynaphthalene burden in the East German subsample. Gaining a better understanding of exposure factors, especially using population data from a large number of locations, will guide policy makers and regulators in strengthening protective measures. © 2026 The Authors.